Quasi Contract Essay

A legal agreement created by the courts between two parties who did not have a previous obligation to each other. A normal contract requires two parties to consent to mutually agreeable terms. Under a quasi contract, neither party is originally intended to create an agreement. Instead, an arrangement is imposed by a judge to rectify an occurrence of unjust enrichment. Investopedia explains ‘Quasi Contract’When one party knowingly receives something for nothing, the courts may impose a quasi contract. For example, if UPS delivers a new television to Zoe that she did not order and she keeps the television and does not attempt to return it to the company that mistakenly shipped it to her, a judge could impose a quasi-contract to force her to pay for the television. Zoe did not intend to purchase the TV, and the TV company did not intend to sell her a TV, but since she chose to benefit from the TV at the company’s expense, the court requires her to reimburse the TV co mpany to make the situation fair. Read more: http://www.investopedia.com/terms/q/quasi-contract.asp#ixzz2Gnf6KBD4 What does Quasi Mean? Source: http://answers.ask.com/Reference/Dictionaries/what_does†¦ The word quasi means almost, sort of, near, not exact, or imperfect. It is when something is close to the original, or has traits of the original, but is not 100% perfect in comparison. A few examples are knock off purses and counterfeit money. For m More  » What is a quasi contract? Source: http://www.ehow.com/facts_5139973_quasi-contract.html?r†¦ A quasi-contract contract exists when one party has conferred a benefit on another; the party who conferred had reasonable expectation of getting paid; the party did not act as a volunteer in conferring the benefit; and the party receiving †¦ More  » What does quasi contract mean? Source: http://www.audioenglish.net/dictionary/quasi_contract.h†¦ 1. a contract created by law for reasons of justice without any expression of assent More  » What does quasi mutual assent mean in relation to the  contract? Source: http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_does_quasi_mutual_assent†¦ When one being induced into contract without formal acceptance but only show with signs and actions that she or he accepts the offerer’s contract. More What is genuine consent? It is consent given freely, voluntarily and intelligently. The definition presupposes that: (a) the person giving the consent is qualified to do so. A minor under 18 for example cannot give his consent to a contract unless assisted by a legal guardian. (b) the consent-giver is not under duress, fraud, intimidation, undue influence, mistake, force, violence or threat. For example, a person who married under pain of death can later impugn the marriage for lack of consent (c) that the consent-giver is of sound mind. A crazy person or one heavily intoxicated cannot give consent unless it is given during a so-called lucid interval. All contracts are agreement but all agreement are not contracts Answer; A contract is a legally binding agreement or relationship that exists between two or more parties to do or abstain from performing certain acts. A contract can also be defined as a legally binding exchange of promises between two or more parties that the law will enforce. For a contract to be formed an offer made must backed acceptance of which there must be consideration. Both parties involved must intend to create legal relation on a lawful matter which must be entered into freely and should be possible to perform. An agreement is a form of cross reference between different parties, which may be written, oral and lies upon the honor of the parties for its fulfillment rather than being in any way enforceable. All contracts are agreement because there must be mutual understanding between two parties for a contract to be formed. All parties should agree and adhere to the terms and conditions of an offer. The following cases illustrate ways in which all contracts are agreements; In the case of invitation to treat, where an invitation to treat is merely an invitation to make an offer. When a firm’s offer is accepted it results into a contract provided other elements of contracts are accepted. Considering person A buying a radio on hire purchase from person B who deals with electronics and its appliances. Both parties must come to an agreement on payment of monthly installment within specified period of time. Such an agreement result to specialty contract which a contract under seal. All contracts are agreement until avoided for example, avoidable contract where one of the parties can withdraw from it if s/he wishes. This occurs due to minor agreement and misrepresentation or undue influence. Considering a case where person A make contract with person B but during the contract period B realizes that he was engaged to perform an agreement under undue influence. Mathematical Proof of the Rybczynski Theorem Mathematical Derivation (Source: Steve Suranovic 2005) The Rybczynski theorem demonstrates the effects of changes in the resource endowments on the quantities of outputs of the two goods in the context of the H-O model. One can apply the theorem anytime some change in the model causes a change in one of the endowments. This could occur as a country invests and thus raises its capital stock, if immigration or emigration occurs or as population growth or growth of the workforce occurs for other reasons. We use the two resource constraint conditions which must be satisfied in an equilibrium. (5c)| | (5d)| | The asterisks indicate that these unit-factor requirements are the optimal levels derived from the cost minimization exercise and are functions of the wage, w, and the rental rate on capital, r. We will assume that wages and rents remain fixed which implies that output prices remain fixed as well. Differentiating (5a) and (5d) with respect to L yields, (8a)| | (8b)| | Writing these in matrix form yields, This expression can now be solved using Cramer’s Rule to get, (9a)| | (9b)| | Whether these partial derivatives are positive or negative depends on the  signs of the denominator. Assume the denominator of each expression is less than zero.   Ã‚  This means that the denominator is negative if and only if production of good one is capital-intensive and production of good two is labor-intensive. So, let’s suppose that good one is capital-intensive (good two is labor-intensive). Then, since each unit factor requirement is positive. This implies, that if good one is capital-intensive (good two labor-intensive) and if the labor endowment rises, then the output of good one would fall and the output of good two would rise if output prices of both goods remained the same. If we conducted the same exercise for changes in the capital endowment, and we continue to assume that good one is capital-intensive and good two labor-intensive, then we would show that,  if we assumed the converse, i.e., if good one were labor intensive and good two capital intensive, then the signs of all of the above derivatives would be reversed. These results lead to the following general statement of the Rybczynski theorem. If a factor endowment in a country rises (falls), and if prices of the outputs remain the same, then the output of the good that uses that factor intensively will rise (fall) while the output of the other good will fall (rise).

General Giap Essay

General Vo Nguyen Giap is perhaps the most important figure in the early history of communist Vietnam with the exception of Ho Chi Minh. General Giap’s skills and expertise of were an essential element of the French defeat in 1954. However General Giap cannot be held solely responsible, the political skills of Ho Chi Minh (the leader of the Viet Minh independence movement) cannot be underestimated. There were many reasons for the French defeat in Vietnam, abundant mistakes were made and the Viet Minh were lead by two of the greatest leaders of the 20th century. Giap rchestrated the defeat of the French and was particularly important in the battle of Dien Bien Phu. Ho Chi Minh was an experienced revolutionary and passionate nationalist infatuated by a single goal: independence for his country. He was a central fgure in the movement to free Asia from the restraints of colonialism. Ho Chi Minh was ultimately working towards the liberation of Vietnam from French colonial rule and â€Å"unity of views between the army and the people†. Ho Chi Minh was a founding member of the Indochinese Communist Party (ICP). The goals of the ICP included the overthrow of the French; establishment of an independent Vietnam uled by a peoples’ government; â€Å"help people in production, anti-literacy, sanitation and disease prevention†. General Giap was the Commander and Defence Minister of North Vietnam from 1944-1980 and was an integral component in the unravelling of French control in Vietnam. Previously, on the outbreak of World War II, Giap fled to China to Join Vietnamese Communist leader Ho Chi Minh, which led to the formation of the Vietnamese Independence League, abbreviated to Viet Minh. In 1945, armed propaganda teams under Giap’s command became the People’s Liberation Army. Subsequently in 1945, Giap served as interior minister in Ho Chi Minh’s revolutionary government created to defeat the French. Giap’s strength lay as a military commander and his scrupulous attention to organisation, which were vital elements in the French downfall. The Vietnamese opposition to the French began almost as soon as the French began to rule. The Vietnamese traditionally have resisted foreigners. Their defeat of China previously gave them a reputation of being one of the most feared nations in South East Asia, meaning that it took the French an extended amount of time to gain overall control. Prior to the 20th century, resistance to the French was constant and violent. The resistance was traditional and localised, involving isolated attacks which were easily contained by the French. Furthermore, World War One gave impetus and momentum to the growth of nationalism, the strong wish for growth, freedom and independence of one’s country and patriotism for Vietnam. Many Vietnamese men were forced to serve in France during WW1 and those who returned brought with them the revolutionary concept of nationalism and as a result the nature of the resistance changed to a more national approach rather than regionally focussed. Additionally, in 1905, Japan became the first Asian power in modern times to efeat a European power during a large naval battle. The Vietnamese determination and motivation were boosted, demonstrating that they could potentially defeat the French, one ot the most intluential European powers at the time. Following the reoccupation of Indochina by the French at the end of World War Two, the Viet Minh rebelled against the French and this became known as the first Indochinese war. French lack of knowledge of Vietnamese geography made it difficult for them to defend themselves. â€Å"The army trained the people in†¦ † guerrilla tactics that were highly successful as they were unlike any approach in the Western world. The unpredictable nature of the guerrilla tactics also minimised the losses of the Viet Minh’s army, making it stronger. The French army began to wear down, decreasing the men’s morale and eventually leading to an easier fght for the Viet Minh. Initially the French underestimated Vietnamese ability; unbeknown to the French they were numerically disadvantaged with 13000 Frenchmen fghting a 35000 strong Viet Minh People’s Army. Prior to the war it was acknowledged that Ho Chi Minh’s original name, Nguyen Tat Thanh, was widely known as many people had heard that he had been a ajor supporter of peasants and workers rights, who in turn supported him. This meant that if he needed a place to hide, the local peasants happily helped, making the Viet Minh virtually untraceable. The widespread support of Ho Chi Minh also meant that people trusted the movement towards independence and nationalism; giving the Viet Minh the political edge over the French. Back in France, the French public were beginning to realise that the conflict in Vietnam was not worth the effort; therefore support for the conflict was lessening. In addition, the Vietnamese determination and strength could not be matched by the French; the Viet Minh had ne thing that the French did not, a goal. The Viet Minh and Giap had learnt invaluable lessons from previous conflicts and mistakes, whereas the French had not. Dien Bien Phu was the longest confrontation and most furious battle of the French Expeditionary Corps. It was the final undoing of the French. In 1953, as both sides prepared for peace talks in the Indochina War, French military commanders selected Dien Bien Phu as the location for a fght with the Viet Minh. Viet Minh guerrillas and troops from the People’s Army of Vietnam surrounded Dien Bien Phu during the build up of the garrisons. The Viet Minh concealed artillery and supplies in camouflaged caves on the mountain face. The Viet Minh’s initial assault on the French almost immediately proved the vulnerability and flawed defence of the French. The French supplies and weapons were flown in by plane; however, this usually led to the shelling of the aircraft. The Viet Minh used local peasants to bring in supplies and weaponry, through dense forests, an entry the French had written off as impassable. As source A suggests â€Å"The Army established a good relationship with the people and relied on the people to fight and defeat the enemy’. Giap used the element of surprise by skilfully employing supporting operations which deceived the French. Giap easily identified the French’s critical vulnerability and used their mistakes to his own advantage. The work of a great strategist. One crucial decision that Giap made was when he moved his own headquarters to the Dien Bien Phu battle site. This allowed him to personally oversee the conflict, and clear up confusion or misunderstandings straight away. General Giap was able to carefully dictate time and place engagements throughout his meticulously planned operation. The heavy

Busines Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Busines Management - Essay Example Although Royal Mail is a private company but it enjoys certain special benefits provided by the government to shield it from growing competition. Such protection played an important role in downfall of the company. The decision taken by the company regarding modernisation and automation can result to job cut of more than 60, 000 employees. In respond to this, Communication Workers Union (CWU) asked the workers to go for a strike till the matter is sought out. Such strikes are not in the UK postal industry, many strikes has taken place in past which are equally responsible for the poor condition of UK postal industry. If the management of Royal Mail want to settle the prevailing unrest, they have to understand implement Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM). Strategic Human Resource Management brings integration between corporate strategy and HR practices of the company. Such linkage assists the company to achieve its organisational goals in the best possible way (Devine, S. K. 1992). For any organisation its human resource is the biggest asset and it needs proper management so that it can act as strategic partner and the company can gets benefited in the long term (Lawler, et. al., 2006, p. 1-2). For application of SHRM, a proper hierarchy has to followed, like it must start with a basic legal compliance, then it should be followed by efficient HR processes, then setting of effective HRM Programs and alignment of these with the strategic goals of the organization. All these should follow a pyramidal structure (Office of Merit Systems Oversight and Effectiveness, n.d., p. 1). PEST analysis helps the management to understand the prevailing market condition and to set the appropriate strategies. The four elements to PEST analysis are Political scenario, Economical state, Social condition and Technological sectors. Political scenario- politically the country is conservative and its legal system is based on

The Claim for Negligence - Law Cases Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 1

The Claim for Negligence - Law Cases - Essay Example Sue is shown the report by her building society. On the basis of this favorable report, she buys the house. She later discovers the dry rot and has to spend a good deal of money to have it rectified. c) Marianne has bought from Ann the house which is ten years old. When the house was built by Brick Ltd., the plans were approved by Greatshire local authority on the basis of a report of independent consulting engineers. The consultants had failed to report on a problem with the foundations. Cracks have now appeared on the kitchen wall which collapses and falls on Tom’s car which is standing beside it. Marianne is so worried by the state of the house that she sells it at  £20,000 less than its market price. She wishes to sue Brick Ltd. I am British Law student so can you please use British English and British resources. That is a coursework in Tort law it is very, very important to use relevant cases and statues. At the moment we are using a book "Streets on Torts" 12th edition by John Murphy it is also important to use this book in the coursework. As a law student, we have to argue everything all the time from both sides, it is not enough just to describe sth, there have to be arguments. The starting point in a claim for negligence is to show that there has been a breach of a duty of care. In this particular situation, there are several issues to be discussed in respect of liability. It is important to note in all of the above claims that no one has been physically injured in any of the occurrences and therefore all claims will be for pure economic loss1. In establishing who can be claimed against it is necessary to discuss the principles of negligence. Firstly it has to be shown that a duty of care was owed, that the duty of care was breached and that as a direct result of that breach harm was caused to the complainant.

What benefits will your college education provide you in your personal Essay

What benefits will your college education provide you in your personal and professional lives - Essay Example college education for my personal life will include development of good peer relationships, increase in self-confidence, awareness of various social issues, development of a good personality, awareness of different types of professional fields of life, and increased opportunities to perform recreational activities. The most important benefit, which I believe to come out of college education for my personal life, will be the development of new relationships with the people studying with me in the college. The benefits of college education for my professional life will include increased job opportunities, good salary package, career evolution, opportunity to excel in professional life, improvement in decision-making skills, ability to raise opinions based on knowledge, and increase in self-confidence. The most important benefit, which I believe to come out of college education for my professional life, will be the increased number of job

Leaderhip and Management in Resusitation Essay - 1

Leaderhip and Management in Resusitation - Essay Example Loss of time and error in the Resuscitation Department are paid dearly by the patient’s increased risk of morbidity (Rosen et al., 2008). In this scenario, there is an incessant demand for the healthcare team in the ERD to hone not only their specific individual and professional skills, but that they should learn to coordinate and work effectively as a team (Cooper and Wakelam, 1999; Sarcevic, Marsic, Waterhouse, Stockwell, and Burd, 2011). The high stress scenario of ERD is not an imagined reality. In fact, it is an actuality that is encountered daily by the healthcare team that is assigned in the ERD. Typically, the healthcare team only has 20 minutes to work together to â€Å"(1) stabilize the patient by (2) rapidly identifying life-threatening injuries; (3) determine the extent of the injury; (4) develop a plan for definitive surgical management of the patient† (Sarcevic et al, 2011, p. 229). Generally, the team is composed of 7 -15 members and they include an attending surgeon, surgical residents or fellows, nurses, an orthopaedic surgeon, an anaesthesiologist, a respiratory therapist, a pharmacist and an X-ray technician (Sarcevic et al., 2011). Additional specialist may be added to the team depending on the need of the patient. In this regard, it can be inferred that the health care team in ERD is technically an interdisciplinary team that have come together for the primary purpose of providing the patient with the initial care that the patient crucially needs. With this perspective, this research will delve on the critical function of nurses-Resuscitation Officer in the ERD. Specifically, this research will focus on the impact of nursing leadership and management in the discharge of the functions of Resuscitation Officer in the Resuscitation Department. Nursing leadership and management in ERD is crucial not only

Self Assessment Personal Statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Self Assessment - Personal Statement Example The most important strength that is given by this test to me is introvert, sensing, thinking and judgement. Whereas, the other are the weakness and are usually belongs to the one who are shy and have weak judgement senses. I got ENTJ result in which I agree with N but do not agree with E. the thing is that introvert are usually the more sensible persons as they use to think more and extrovert speaks what they feel. The one who is more bold use to speak what they feel but have less time to think but introvert are the one who use to think more and has more powerful judgement. Moreover, the sensing is the most important factor in self assessment as the sensing only provides results with solid reasons. For example according to strong sense it is clear that the people join the profession according to their type and field and this is practically true also where as the intuitive way do not provide such solid reasons. According to my results and self assessment this ENTJ support my results as this is on more solid reasons and provide the true examples in daily life. The thinking is better than feeling.

Confucius Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Confucius - Essay Example fill the duties that they are supposed to perform for their families and their parents, but where such people are just being dutiful yet having no respect, there simply will be no difference between feeding their parents and feeding their horses or dogs Confucius, 1355). Thus, respect is what measures the value of a relationship and thus earning it is a great advantage for an individual. Through applying virtue while treating others, respect will be borne, since virtue entails doing what one would expect of others to do to him/her, meaning earning respect out of giving respect to others. The rule of virtue is that â€Å"what you do not wish for yourself, do not wish for others† (Confucius, 1340). Additionally, treating others as one would expect to be treated by them is advantageous, since it will enable an individual to have more friends who surrounds him/her. This is because; the hallmark of achievement of an individual is the trustworthiness with which the individual has been serving others. Trustworthiness on the other hand cannot be cultivated without there being a good and noble relationship between an individual and those who surround him. Having friends is a major benefit for an individual, because friendship brings delight (Confucius, 1355). Secondly, the benefit that an individual reaps from treating others as one wish they would be treated is that; the individual gains contentment. Contentment is derived from the assurance that the others are reciprocating what an individual has done to them, where doing good will always be accompanied by being done good for. Therefore, all that is required to derive contentment in life is just â€Å"loyalty and reciprocity, and that’s all† (Confucius, 1336). Contentment is the result of an individual doing good and not boasting about his good qualities, and without even calling attention to his good deeds. The additional benefit that comes with this aspect of treating others as one would expect to be treated buy them

Business growth Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Business growth - Essay Example Businesses that grow are often seen in the technology industries† (par. 1). In terms of measuring business growth in the United States therefore, one needs to gather and evaluate pertinent data that indicates the performance of businesses that is indicative of growth over the period under review. In the Econographia (2012) site, the historical record of the country’s economic performance is effectively captured and visually presented using graphical illustrations. One of the most relevant indicators of business growth that was disclosed was the ability to create jobs, specifically in the private sector. As revealed, from the post-war period until the tenure of President Obama, the creation of private sector jobs have been illustrated to exhibit a declining trend, except during the periods where governance was headed by Dwight David â€Å"Ike† Eisenhower, 34th President of the United States, and both George H.W. Bush (41st President) and George W. Bush (43rd Presid ent), which signified the lowest trends, as shown in Figure 1, below. Obama’s tenure manifested the fourth lowest number of private sector jobs created. ... However, as emphasized by Kiely & Farley (2012), â€Å"by using private-sector jobs, the president makes his job-creation record look better. The U.S. has gained about 55,000 private-sector jobs since Obama became president in January 2009, but overall there has been a total job loss of 552,000 — all because of the decline in government jobs† (p. 1). Seeing the political climate through the eyes of the American Institute of Economic Research (AIER), Steven Cunningham, the Director of Research and Education has indicated through his economic review that there is an eminent recovery that could spur optimistic potentials for business growth. As disclosed, the business cycle conditions that are being monitored by the AIER have captured rising business growth indicators which confirms supposed continuing expansion (Cunningham, 2012). A copy of the statistical indicators of business cycle changes for the period February to June 2012 are presented in Annex A. From the statisti cal indicators, it was revealed that positive changes were noted for the following primary leading indicators for the cyclical status April to June of 2012, to wit: (1) new orders for consumer goods; (2) new housing permits; (3) index of common stock prices; and (4) change in consumer debt. For primary roughly coincident indicators, the following were optimistic and expanding changes: (1) non-agricultural employment; (2) index of industrial production; (3) personal income less transfer payments; (4) manufacturing and trade sales; and (5) gross domestic product. Finally, for primary lagging indicators, the following exhibited expanding status: (1) manufacturing and trade inventories; (2) commercial and industrial loans; (3) ratio of consumer debt to income; and (4)

Hometown Standpoint Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Hometown Standpoint - Essay Example I come from Saudi Arabia. The family is considered the basic unit of society and members are inherently unified as well as supportive of each other from birth until adulthood. The relevant characters in my life are members of my nuclear family: my mother, brother and sister. My father died in 2001. When I got married, it was my mother who stood by me. In addition to my nuclear family, I consider my spouse and my two children relevant characters in my life. I played football as member of the national team for 20 years before my father died. When I came to America in 2011 with my wife, I started pursuing higher education. Recently, my mother was diagnosed with cancer and sought treatment a year ago. As such, from one’s standpoint, I strongly believe that as the male member of the family, considered the source of strength and support, I should strive to achieve personal and professional goals that aim improving the lives of the members of my family. All my plans and actions are undertaken to generate financial resources needed to support my children and spouse, as well as seek treatment for my mother’s illness. Since my father’s death, his absence left a void in terms of his physical and emotional support that he showered us when he was alive. As such, I try to make up for my father’s absence by frequent monitoring of my mother’s health condition. I firmly believe that the importance relegated to the fa mily as a close-knit unit of society in our culture contributed to my immense commitment to ensure that all members communicate with each other despite differences in geographic

The Need for Privatization Essay Example for Free

The Need for Privatization Essay Every paycheck 7.65 percent is taken out for a retirement program, after the employer kicks in, a total of 12.4 percent of what you earn goes to the government to fund your retirement. The government system offers minuscule returns by anyones measure and the system is expected to go bankrupt as soon as 2014. If a private company had these problems, no one would invest. But, this is a mandatory program, Americans have to stay in this system and are forced to invest in its fated future. Social Security is one of the biggest disasters of American history. In a country that was founded on the principles of Capitalism and free markets, this socialist program limits peoples pursuit of happiness. Percent Who Believe Social Security Will Not Be There When They Retire All under 6560% Generation X70% Baby Boomers69% Social Security is an un-funded pay-as-you-go system. The idea is fundamentally flawed and follows the design of the famous illegal pyramid schemes. Many people claim that the constitution provides a social safety net, because the preamble of the constitution states that the government should promote the general welfare of the people. The constitution then goes on to list the enumerated powers of the state. Nowhere in the list does it say that the government should provide a retirement of healthcare for the people. If the founding fathers wanted these programs, they would have provided a way to pay for them. The rate of savings in the United States is 26 percent of Gross National Product; the country of Chile saves 30 percent of their GNP. With these two countries saving close to the same amount for their future, you would expect both to have similar results for retirees. The United States Government run pay-as-you-go system provides meager results as compared to even the least progressive private investment. The  Country of Chile used to have the same system the US currently uses, but decided to let people invest their own money how they choose in the open market. Chileans pensions are 70 to 100 percent higher than under the old government system since the switch to a private solution. The Chile system says that a person must contribute at least ten percent of their wages to the retirement program. Many workers contribute more than the ten percent that is required. In a private retirement system, people are free to choose what is best for them. Josà © Pià ±era, who is Chiles minister of labor, says: A worker can contribute more than 10 percent if he wants a higher pension or if he wants to retire early. Individuals have different preferences: some want to work until they are 85; others want to go fishing at 55, or 50, or 45, if they can. The uniform pay-as-you-go social security system does not recognize differences in individual preferences. In my country, those differences had led to pressure on the congress to legislate different retirement ages for different groups. As a result, we had a discriminatory retirement-age system. Blue-collar workers could retire at 65; white-collar workers could retire more or less at 55; bank employees could retire after 25 years of work; and the most powerful group of all, those who make the laws, the congressmen, were able to retire after 15 years of work. Opinion of Social Security Reforms The privatized Chilean system is obviously working better than the current US system. Many critics claim that the switch to a private system would be difficult to do. Chile, Mexico, Britain, and Australia have all successfully made the switch to a non-government system. All four of these countries are now striving under their new private retirement systems. The main problem cited in privatizing social security is how to pay the people that have paid into the program their whole life. There is an easy solution to this. The American Government has many programs that it does not have to provide under the Constitution. The government could easily abolish unnecessary arms such as the departments of Agriculture, Commerce, and Education. The government  also has excess assets that could be sold to support the people who have been forced to be dependent on Social Security. Social Securitys website lists the number of agency field offices at 1,300; thats a lot of office space, and a lot of bureaucrats that wouldnt need to be paid. If countries like Mexico and Chile can change over to privatized retirement systems, the United States will have no problem replicating their success. Josà © Pià ±era, Chiles minister of labor, described how the transition to a private system was made: The real transition cost of the system is the money the government ceases to obtain from the workers who moved to the new system, because the government is committed to pay the pensions of the people already retired and of those who will retire in the future. That transition cost can be calculated. In Chile it was around 3 percent of gross national product. How we financed it is another story. It will be done differently in each country. Suffice it to say that even though governments have enormous pension liabilities, they also have enormous assets. In Chile we had state-owned enterprises. In America I understand that the federal government owns a third of the land. I dont know why the government owns land, and I dont know the value. Nor am I saying that you should sell the land tomorrow. What I am saying is that when you consider privatizing Social Security, you must look at assets as well as liabilities. I am sure that the U.S. government has gigantic assets. Are they more or less than the liabilities of the Social Security system? I dont know, but the Cato project on privatizing Social Security will study that. In Chile we calculated the real balance sheet and, knowing there were enough assets, financed the transition without raising tax rates, generating inflation, or pressuring interest rates upward. In the last several years we have had a fiscal surplus of 1 to 2 percent of GNP. Opinion of Privatization Plan Strongly Favor38% Somewhat in Favor31% Lean in Favor4% No Opinion12% Lean Opposed2% Somewhat Opposed6% Strongly Opposed6% DK2% The future for Social Security looks grim, but there is some hope for privatization. The Republicans currently want private Social Security, and George Bush said Dont treat Social Security like its a federal program. In February of 1997 the Oregon state senate passed a resolution requesting that the state be allowed to opt out of the Federal Social Security program to start their own private retirement system. As people begin to see that the national program is going bankrupt, there will be great political pressure on congressmen to enact a new program. Medicare/Medicaid is another Federal program that is in great need of reform. Medical costs account for fourteen percent of our Gross Domestic Product. The current system decreases competition and skyrockets prices for medical care. The heavily regulated heath care business is restricted in not only getting cutting edge treatments to patients, but also in how they see patients. The American Medical Association limits the number of medical students accepted to Universities and decrease competition. There is never an ad in the help wanted section of the newspaper looking for doctors. When was the last time you heard of a doctor collecting unemployment? Government regulations also limit what non-doctors can do. Its easy to see that its doesnt take a PHD to do an annual checkup or to fix a broken bone. Regulations hurt Americans and drive up healthcare. With Medicare, there is a price put on procedures. An experienced doctor gets just as much as the recent med school graduate for doing open-heart surgery. The experienced  doctor is unable to make his own prices. These practices discourage competition and are bad for America. Canada and Britain both have socialized health care systems. The programs cost more than the semi-capitalist American system, but polls seem to show that citizens in those countries enjoy them. The care in these countries is mediocre and there is not much cutting edge medicine being done because there is no incentive to. There is also no incentive for doctors to perform to the best of their ability. Canadian patients cross the boarder to seek care at the Cleveland Clinic and when Margaret Thatcher needed surgery, she crossed the Atlantic to get help. The wait for cancer radiation in Canada is three to six months, twelve to twenty two months for a new plastic hip. Federally run programs will never be as cost effective or efficient as those run in the private sector. Time will tell as to whether Social Security and Medicare will fall out of Federal hands, but common knowledge of Economics shows that more competition breeds more innovative and less expensive solutions.

Drama activities: teaching english in the esl classroom

Drama activities: teaching english in the esl classroom If even the greatest dramatist that has ever lived in this world believes that all humans are actors, who are we to disagree? I for one completely do not. As a language practitioner, I for one strongly believe that drama has the potential of making the learning experience fun for the students and even memorable because it is â€Å"real†. Let me tell you why. Students in schools today seem to have very little exposure to the English language. The only contact with the language comes from being taught using the traditional ‘chalk and talk method in the English language classroom. They have very little experience with real-life situations where the English language is used as a communication tool. It is not surprising then that the Communicative Approach has been introduced in the new ‘Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Menengah (KBSM) English Language program. The communicative syllabus will focus not only on the linguistic competence but also on the development of the communicative ability of the learner. Instead of being a passive participant, the learner is now encouraged to take a more active role in their own language learning process in the classroom. In line with the National Education Philosophy, classroom strategies devised by the English teacher should cater not only for efficient language but also provide opportunities for students personal development to produce students who are competent and confident language users (Compedium, 1989). Teachers who advocate the Communicative Approach are expected to develop strategies that would promote self-learning, group interactions in authentic situations and peer- teaching, instead of the traditionally teacher-dominated and teacher-directed classes. The activities would also require the learner to do things with the language such as making choices, evaluating, and bridging the information gap. Examples of such activities are drama, role-play, simulation games, improvisation and miming. For the purpose of this project paper, we shall look at drama activities as a communicative tool in the teaching and learning of English in the ESL classroom. Drama has always had a close relationship with the teaching of the English language. With its link to literature, drama is a powerful tool in developing the students communicative ability. Generally speaking, drama is student-centered because it puts the students in a position to do most of the communicating and interacting instead of the teacher. Therefore, the onus is now on the students to take control of their own learning. Psychologically, it is also very motivating for there are no wrong answers in drama, allowing success for each student. The flexibility and openness of drama also provides the students a greater degree of freedom as compared to when they are required to find a single acceptable answer in the conventional English language lesson. Students acquire fluency skills at a much faster rate as a result of promoting student student talk and reducing the teachers role to a necessary low level or almost non-existent in some cases. Looking at it from the teachers perspective, engaging in group activities, as in drama, allows students to feel more relaxed and in turn feel comfortable to express their feelings better; compared to when they are required to come up with individual responses. Used properly, drama allows both the teacher and learner to gauge how far the learners ability to communicate has developed and this in time can develop confidence and better social skills in the learner. Furthermore, it is emphasized that English should be taught to not only develop the basic means of communication, but to further encourage fluent and accurate expression, both oral and written. Once the students begin to master the language they should be able to overcome their self-consciousness and develop their confidence to express views openly and articulately. These students would then make English meaningful and relevant in the sense that now they can take it out of the classroom and use it in their everyday lives. It i s rather obvious to realize the common ground English and drama share. Drama should contribute significantly to the realization of all these aims. Statement of the Problem Students in schools today seem to find the learning of English irrelevant and to a certain extent, confusing. They do not need to use the English they have learnt in the classroom in their daily lives. English language moreover, is often described as â€Å"a strong second language† but is, in reality only treated as a foreign language in all primary and secondary schools (Compendium, 1989). This change in the status of English in the system has brought with it a lot of problems for both teachers and students. Students who are hesitant to communicate in English may view the use of the language orally as trivial and insignificant to language learning. To them, to be merely ‘competent in the language is sufficient, rather than to ‘perform them (Chomsky, 1965). In actual fact, students especially the shy and silent ones, are afraid of making bizarre mistakes or errors. Thus, many resort to the use of their mother tongues or their L1 in their daily discussions or daily convers ations. The launching of the Language Policy in 1971 adds to this restriction. Bahasa Melayu was made the sole medium of instruction in schools and other formal events. At the same time, students of all races and background seemed to be more comfortable communicating in Bahasa Melayu, and so the importance of English language has been gradually declining. One possible way of overcoming this problem is to supplement the conventional English teaching methods with suitable teaching techniques such as drama, which offer the students the chance to actually use the English they have learnt. Even though the students English may not be perfect, the activities would help them to improve verbal communication. Objective of the Study The main aim of this study is to give a broad introduction to drama and to show how such techniques can be useful in the teaching and learning of the English language, particularly in Malaysian schools. This exploratory study plans to achieve the following objectives: To determine the students extent of exposure to drama activities. To ascertain students motivation towards learning English. To assess students attitudes towards learning English. Research Questions Specifically, this study seeks answers for the following research questions: Have the students been exposed to drama activities in their language classroom? What are the students motivations in learning the English language? What are the students attitudes towards English? Significance of the Study There is fundamental need for learners to bring what they have learned in the four walls of the classroom out into the open and apply it in ‘real-life situations; and drama activities meet this need. This study therefore hopes to make teachers of English language aware and to have the conviction that drama activities can be an effective tool in language teaching. It is hoped that this study will be an ‘eye opener for teachers and students of ESL. It provides the necessary information for language teachers to make students inevitably participate in the English lesson and thereby gain self-confidence in using the language. Thus, the significance of this study is to make ESL teachers aware that rather than acting in plays or studying them, students are taught English using a technique derived from drama as a social process of development. This will obviously promote the use of drama in the teaching and learning of ESL and in its widest sense, is best seen as an alternative methodology to one based on the traditional ‘chalk and talk. As far as students are concerned, they will soon see the purpose of drama activities in their learning and how realistic and relevant they are when applied in their everyday lives. Since drama activities often portray the society from which the students come from, it can give the students an opportunity to feel what life is all about. Drama activities encourage the students to make practical and rational judgments when confronted by complex situations, which they may encounter later in life. This valuable experience would certainly hold them in good stead in their future. Thus, the significance of the study advocates the usage of drama activities in the ESL classroom. It is aspired that teachers would adopt this technique and adapt the activities to the relevance and needs of their students. Limitations of the Study On the basis of discussion on this project paper, the drama activities presented is targeted towards Form four students of intermediate proficiency level. The drama activities are some of the possibilities for social interactions that lie within classroom situations. However, some of its limitations were recognized, in particular: In situations outside the classroom, learners will need to satisfy a much wider variety of communicative needs arising from the events of everyday life. They will need to cope with greater variety of patterns of interactions. These may vary from the formal interview, with its tightly controlled structure, to the informal gathering where everybody competes on an equal basis for turns to speak. They will need to become involved in different kinds of social relationship, for which different forms of language will be needed. In order to prepare learners to cope with these wider functional and social needs, we must look for ways extending the possibilities for communicative interactions in the classroom (Littlewood, 1984). It is hoped that by using the drama activities, the apparent gaps can be bridged and in return the students language competency and performance can be enhanced. Definition of Terms Drama How do we, as teachers of English as a Second Language bring drama into todays classroom? Though some teachers have tried using drama in their classroom, they are still in a state of confusion. This is not because they do not know how to teach it, but simply because they are not sure of its purpose in education. The use of communicative activities is a technique to achieve one of the aims of the communicative approach, which is to obtain communicative competence. The important aspect of this approach is to communicate with another person in the classroom and in the long term, the society (Wan, 1990). Drama used in the classroom can be considered a communicative activity since it fosters communication between learners and provides opportunities to use the target language in various ‘make believe situations. Thus, drama is any activity, which asks the participant to portray himself in an imaginary situation; or to portray another person in an imaginary situation. Drama is concerned with the world of ‘pretense. It provides an opportunity for a person to express himself through verbal expressions and gestures using his imagination and memory. According to Wan (1990), drama takes what it shares with English, an emphasis on developing the means of communication and extends this means to include all the paralinguistic aids to meaning which takes communication beyond just writing to gestures and physical interaction. Drama activities draw on the natural ability of every person to imitate, mimic and express himself. The students are encouraged to draw on their natural capacity to live parts of his past experience that might otherwise never emerge. When students are brought together they bring along with them different life and different background into the classroom. According to the Oxford Dictionary (1995), drama is defined as a literary composition to be performed by actors; play or the art of acting, writing or producing plays. But for the purpose of this paper, drama refers more to informal (creative drama) as it is used in the language classroom and not on stage. Drama is doing. Drama is being. Drama is such a normal thing. It is something that we all engage in daily when faced with difficult situation. This is clearly illustrated by Tricia (1984) when she quotes, â€Å"Getting on with our day-to-day live requires a series of masks†. Generally, drama is considered as a type of activity in which the learners are given fairly controlled scenarios to interpret. But the term drama is often viewed with confusion because different people use it in different ways to suit different contexts. As such, it seems necessary to define the terms from the perspective of teaching and learning English as a Second Language (ESL). Drama takes into account the socio-psychological aspects of learning as it involves the whole person and his total response. For some students drama techniques can be an alternative means of learning the language and may produce far more positive results than normal classroom teaching (Mordecai, 1985). CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Introduction Drama is used in ESL classrooms to promote communication in its authentic form. The Communicative Approach advocates that learners need to learn how to use the target language in ‘real life situations and drama activities meet this need, for it allows natural learning. If examined carefully, we would find that, English teachers define English as one that encourages and develops communication skills, self-expression, imagination and creativity. These are the key terms, which would surface as aims of teaching in a language classroom. When similarly confronted, teachers of drama say the same thing. Thus, drama invariably and significantly contributes to the realization of all the aims in an ESL classroom. The Communicative Approach The term ‘approach refers to the theories about the nature of how language is learnt (Richards, 1986). It takes into account the basic units of language structure and the nature of language proficiency. It also considers the psycholinguistic and cognitive processes involved in language learning and the conditions that allow for effective learning to take place. The Communicative Approach thus refers to the belief that language learning is communicative competence (Richards, 1986). Communicative competence here refers not only to the knowledge of the grammatical rules of a language and how to form grammatical sentences but also to know when, where and to whom to use these sentences in a speech community (Richards, 1985 and Hymes, 1972). Communicative ‘Methodology on the other hand, refers to the different ways of teaching language using the communicative approach. Therefore, the term ‘techniques refers to different classroom activities (Wan, 1990). In this study they will be called communicative activities. In the Communicative Approach, language teaching and learning emphasized the use of language for the communication of meaning than learning the language structures, forms and vocabulary (Wilkins, 1976 and Widdowson, 1978). However, this does not imply that the grammatical and lexical aspects are neglected. In fact, they do have a place in the Communicative Method of language teaching. Therefore, the ‘how of language teaching and learning refers to the specific techniques and procedures used to unconsciously acquire and consciously learn a language through communication (Brumfit, 1984). The Nature of Communicative Activities Communicative activities refer to the techniques, which are employed in the communicative method in language teaching. Examples of such activities are games, simulation, miming, drama and role-play, which make use of the target language. The activities involve doing things with language and these language activities for communication is not restricted to conversation and may involve listening, speaking, reading and writing or an integration of two or more skills. Communicative activities have the following characteristics (Wan, 1990): They are purposeful. They are beyond strictly practicing particular structures. They are interactive. The activities are often conducted with others and often involve some form of discussion. Authentic materials are used. The situations in which the learners have to use language should be as realistic as possible. The language models given should be authentic. They are based on the information gap principle. Five guiding principles have been vividly outlined behind the use of communicative activities as language teaching and learning techniques (Morrow, 1981). They are as follows: 1. Know what you are doing. This principle gives relevance to the lesson, which the students would want to use in order to perform in the target language. For example in teaching speaking, the task could be asking for directions to a certain place.. The students here communicate with each other and there is no control over the exact language used but the situation is controlled. 2. The whole is more important than the sum of the parts. In the communicative method, the natural language is dealt in real situations where it is necessary to work in the context of the whole. Communication is not learnt inductively as it cannot easily be analyzed into its various components without its nature being destroyed in the process. For example you may teach the component of various forms of greeting but it is no guarantee that the student will be able to choose the appropriate form when required in a real-life situation. 3. The processes are as important as the forms. The processes of communication such as information gap, choice and feedback, should be as much as possible replicated in trying to develop the ability of the students to communicate in the target language. The teacher must try to devise exercises where there is an information gap so that real meaningful communication can take place. The participants in a conversation also have a choice in what they say and how they say it. When undergoing these processes, there should be ample feedback during interaction between two speakers in order to gauge if the message has been successfully sent across. 4. To learn it, do it. Only by practicing communicative activities would students learn to communicate. Students must become responsible for their own learning. This is what student-centeredness entails and thus the role of the teacher consequently changes. He / she must learn to take a backseat and should no longer dominate the learning situation. The teacher is now a facilitator and should strive to provide all the help the student needs to play an active role in his own learning. 5. Mistakes are not always mistakes. As language practitioners we must able to make the distinction between ‘mistakes and ‘errors. There is the need for flexibility in deciding to treat ‘mistakes at different stages of the learning process towards communicative competence. We must not be hasty in wielding the axe on the students as ‘mistakes are evidence of learning taking place after all. The use of communicative activities is to achieve one of the aims of the communicative approach, which is communicative competence. The essence of this approach is to communicate with another person in the classroom and in long term the society. Hence, drama can be used in the classroom since it fosters communication between learners and provides opportunities to use the target language in various ‘make believe situations. Drama also allows participants the opportunity to act out roles and to use all the media of communication, the voice, gesture and movement. It thus takes what it shares with English, an emphasis on developing the means of communication, and extending these means to include all the paralinguistic aids to form meaning. This takes communication beyond the two dimensions, writing and talking, to involve the third dimension of gesture and physical interaction, thus encouraging active and discriminating observation and listening, which true communication always dem ands (Tricia, 1984). Drama Versus Theater Susan Holden (1981) defines drama as any activity which asks the participant to portray himself in an imaginary situation; or to portray another person in an imaginary situation. Drama is thus concerned with the world of lets pretend. It provides an opportunity for a person to express himself through verbal expressions and gestures using his imagination and memory. In this paper, drama refers more to dramatic activities as the setting is the language classroom rather than the stage. The participants in the drama activities are thus learners and not actors. To have a further understanding between Drama and Theater, a clear distinction has to be made between the two concepts. One way of accomplishing this is to look at Drama as process oriented and Theater as being product oriented. Through the examination of the fundamental features that lay behind both these concepts, ONeill (1995) came up with the following characteristics for each of them: 1. Drama as a Process The emphasis is placed on participants experiencing personal growth through an exploration of their understanding of the issues within dramatic experience. Student and teacher share equal places in the development, analysis and the carrying out of the drama activities. The drama is normally not performed for an audience. 2. Theater as a Product The students personal growth is measured through the learning of skills. The study is facilitated through a scripted work not of the students making. The teacher transfers her or his interpretation and analysis of the drama. The primary objective is formal play production. For the purpose of this paper, we will focus on Drama as a Process rather than Theater as a Product. As opposed to the traditional idea of theater, which results in an end performance, drama as a process is performed for the sake of the act of doing it, not for an audience, not for a production, and it doesnt need to be rehearsed. The audience can simply be the performers themselves. Drama as a process refers to a teaching method that involves children in imaginary, unscripted, and spontaneous scenes, in which the meaning is made from the engagement and transactions between the teacher and students (Schneider Jackson, 2000). The students and teachers work together to create an imaginary dramatic world within which issues are considered and problems can be solved. In this world they work together to explore problems and issues such as betrayal, truth and other ethical and moral issues. ONeill (1995) mentions that sometimes the work may begin as light-hearted, but the teacher always layers more dramatic tension and complexity into the work because the teacher may aim for a pedagogical outcome. In Drama as a Process, students learn to think beyond their own points of view and consider multiple perspectives on a topic through playing different roles. Playing a range of positions encourages them to be able to empathize with others and to consider life from their viewpoint. It allows them to walk on other peoples shoes, to walk the paths they tread and to see how the world looks from their eyes. Since the end product is not the focus, students work at every moment to produce to the best of their ability. In this way, drama can be seen as more meaningful, productive, and well-rounded. Drama thus, not only teaches students to be better communicators in a variety of authentic situations, but also compels them to use English in ways that differ from everyday classroom interactions, mimicking more authentic language use. Drama in the ESL Classroom Generally, drama involves being an imaginary person usually in an imaginary situation and sometimes a real one (Venugopal, 1986). The learners are given fairly controlled scenarios to interpret. Drama is defined by the scope of the task of problem-solving in order to achieve their goals. Students need to know of their ability to learn from each other as well as to learn independently. They should be aware that they are working towards a goal within a given time limit. This will sharpen their concentration and at the end of the lesson they should have satisfaction of having achieved that goal (Venugopal, 1986). Drama in education is a mode of learning. Through the pupils active identification with the imagined role and situations in drama, they can learn to explore issues, events and relationships (ONeil, 1994). In drama, students draw on their knowledge and experience of the real world in order to create their own experience they have as well as their knowledge, which they have gained from books, films or television. Although, these imaginary situations may at first seem superficial and only action oriented, through the teachers guidance and careful intervention it should be possible for the work to grow in depth. In creating a make believe world students can come to understand themselves and their real world in which they live. In order to engage in drama activities students do not need sophisticated theatre skills. However, they must be willing to (ONeil, 1997): Make believe with regard to objects, for example, a table-top can become a wagon or raft; a circle of chairs may represent a starship; cupped hands may contain a precious object. Make believe with regards to actions and situations, for example, creeping across the school hall may be means of escaping from the jail; a group sitting huddled on the floor may be passengers on an emigrant ship; stealing a bunch of keys may represent a test of stealth and cunning for the warriors. Adopt a role, for example, settlers who seek a new life in a foreign country; poor children living on the streets; teenagers who have left home. Maintain the make believe verbally, for example, describing the doorway in which they spent the night; presenting the facts about child labour to the committee for reform; discussing the problems to be faced on a voyage. Interact with the rest of the group, for example, agreeing to join the crew of the starship; choosing a leader for the community; teaching a skill to a friend; In drama activities, students are given the opportunities to draw together all the bits of language they have learnt and practice it in situations they are likely to encounter outside the classroom. In any drama activity, learners must create the interactions themselves on the basis of their roles rather than perform in ways that have been predetermined by the teacher (Littlewood, 1981). This freedom of choice offers the students the chance to use their English learnt to develop the character, therefore promoting spontaneity in activities similar to â€Å"real-communication†. Drama in a way helps students to improve oral and verbal communication despite gaps in their knowledge. However, the use of picture cards and other visual cues will narrow these gaps. Drama activities are essentially social activities and involve contact, communication and the negotiation of meaning. The nature of the work will impose certain pressures on the students but will also bring considerable rewards. Co-operative activities are very rare in the Malaysian schools. Too often students are trained to work as individuals and to be both competitive and possessive about their achievements. Drama on the other hand, works from the strength of the groups. Drama is an individuals spontaneous behavior reacting to others in a hypothetical situation. The essential core of the activity is understanding the situation of another person, and to do this well the ‘player needs to come to grip with the other participants roles, not just his own. In practice, this works when a ‘player is given the basic information about who he is, what he is like, and what he wants to do. He must interact with others and relate his situation to theirs and gain a greater understanding of the roles, the relationship and the language involved (Revell, 1979). Movements and Mime Mime involves the expressive use of the body. It is a non-verbal representation of an idea or story through gestures, bodily movements and expressions. It may seem strange that mime should be encouraged in language teaching, as it does not involve language. It must be borne in mind that though no language is used during the mime, it will act as a catalyst to generate language during the discussions before the mime is presented and also elicit language when there is need for explanations (Edwin, 1992). Mime is thus used to enrich verbal features rather than replace them. After a mime session, parallel exercises are carried out where appropriate words are added to the mime activities. In the English language classroom, unlike in theatres mime activities are not demanding and this makes mime activities suitable for poor and shy students who lack the necessary level of language proficiency. Mime activities can be incorporated into scenes from texts or improvisation of scenes from texts. Role Play Simulation and role play provide the opportunity to move away from the traditional role of teachers and also the classroom setting arrangements where the class is rearranged to reflect the situation that is being dramatized (Edwin, 1992). Role play can be used for students of different proficiency levels. However, the teacher will have to decide the degree of control over the scenario for the role play. For the very shy and low proficiency students, teachers could ask students to dramatize conversations and dialogues directly from the texts. For students with some English proficiency, teachers could provide a situation, which is relatively structured so that these students would feel confident and be more willing to participate. The more proficient students could be given less structured scenario and they should be encouraged to attempt to improvise the same text. In role play, a student is required to imagine that he is either himself or another person in a particular situation. He would be asked to behave exactly as he feels the person would. His portrayal of the character will help him understand the character and also provide an intimate experience with the literary text. There are many types of role play, for example, dramatic plays, story dramatization and socio-drama, seminar style presentation, debates and interviews. Simulations Simulations are drama activities that often mirror real life. They can however be imaginary. They are often problem solving activities and students bring their personality, knowledge and experience into these activities. Among the common forms of simulation is the mock trial. It is popular with students and court cases are quite easy to be developed from literary texts, often based on the conflicts faced by the characters in the story. Other forms of simulation can also be encouraged. For example, group work in the fo

Analysis of the Greenwich Primary Care Trust

Analysis of the Greenwich Primary Care Trust A report describing and analysing the public health contribution of an organisation or initiative of your choice. Greenwich Primary Care Trust Introduction The contribution to public health made by an organisation or agency can be evaluated in relation to a number of features. These can be the range and scope of activities, the relevance for the local area, the effectiveness of the interventions, and their foundation within the boundaries of evidence-based practice. However, public health can also be measured in relation to how well the agency addresses key aspects of public health, including inequalities in health, what these constitute and their impact, and what is being done to address specific inequalities. In addition, known areas of public health need can be assessed in terms of progress made so far and amount of services provided to meet identified targets. This report explores the public health contribution provided by Greenwich Primary Care Trust in their The annual Public Health Report 2007 2008. In this report, which introduces itself using the following frames of reference, â€Å"providing the most up-to-date and local information; thinking ahead as the population is due to grow and change; and making evidence-based recommendations to help prioritise local actions on the key health challenges for the borough† (GPCT, 2008 p 3). Discussion Public health is generally focused on significant health factors and issues which are important to the wider population, rather than to the individual, and impact upon society and social structures and social life, not just on the lives of single people (Pomerleau and McKee, 2005; Orme et al, 2007). Pomerlau and McKee (2005) describe public health as â€Å"the science and art of promoting health and preventing disease through the organized efforts of society† ( p 7). Therefore, it is not surprising that the report focuses very much on language surrounding the identification of key elements of public health which are subject to health promotion within the locality, as being the specific focus of the Trust. Pomerleau and McKee (2005) cite the Ottawa Charter which was concerned with building healthy public policy; creating supportive environments; strengthening community actions; developing personal skills; reorienting health services ; and demonstrating commitment to health prom otion (p 9). These could be considered as signposts to understanding the value of a public health policy published by a specific agency. The report is a clear, detailed and comprehensive report clearly and effectively outlining key areas for health which are viewed as priorities. These include: Improving mental health (especially depression); Reducing cardiovascular disease (chiefly heart attacks and strokes); and reducing cancers (especially lung, bowel, prostate and breast) (GPCT, 2008). The report provides statistics on morbidity and mortality for the borough which demonstrate that in relation to health and disability over the lifespan, these are the most significant health problems and the ones which are, it can be assumed, most urgently requiring attention. All of these foci are very much about health promotion, but when looked at in the context of what is known about these kinds of diseases, all of the other elements of the Ottawa Charter cited above can be seen to affect these health issues. In line with health promotion principles, the report does focus on living longer, on quality of life, and on wellbeing issues, all of which are laudable in relation to public health because they relate both to the individual, and individual desires, and to the aspects of public health which will support and benefit the state (Iphofen, 2003). One of the drawbacks, however, of such a sweeping approach to public health policy, however, is seen in this report as frequently as it is seen in the national, governmental health promotion campaigns, that of over-simplification, and, arguably unconscious, marginalisation of certain individuals. For example, the report, like government public health campaigns, does not take enough notice of the individual fac tors which not only influence health but are not so easy to eradicate, such as the genetic factors influencing health and health behaviours (Hall, 1951). In relation to health promotion in the key health areas identified, the report does acknowledge the issues of lifestyle factors and socio-economic factors affecting health and disease, morbidity and mortality. The report states that both current and historic socio-economic factors, and the diversity of the local population, especially in relation to ethnicity, are considered significant in relation to the most important public health issues. There is a wide range of literature which links social life, socio-economic status and health, and which demonstrates that those who experience inequalities in health are those who are most disadvantaged in social and economic life (Bury and Gabe, 2004). It is also well known that health inequalities increase as the gap between advantage and disadvantage widens, and that certain social or cultural groups are more likely to experience disadvantage and the concomitant inequalities in health (Freund et al, 2003). GPCT (2008) acknowledge this, and fo cus on some important social groups as most suffering disadvantage in the locality, including Black African and Irish populations. They argue that their policies have been designed to demonstrate â€Å"greater targeting of groups at greatest risk of poor health outcomes, and working with these groups to develop approaches that will really work, with a particular focus on the Black African and Irish populations in the borough who have poor outcomes across the major causes of early death and ill health† (p 7). The report also addresses a range of ethnic issues and differences in health. However, it does not go far enough in describing and discussing policy responses to these issues, and to outlining constructive ways to make real progress in these areas. Plenty of literature shows the ethnicity based inequalities in health and the spectrum of disadvantage related to ethnic diversity (Spector, 2002). These kinds of inequalities, which are often racially demarcated, are reflected in global communities, and are no new occurrence (Goeslin et al, 2004). Yet there are ongoing discussions about the ability to address such problems through public health initiatives, even with the inclusion of and best use of healthy public policy (Bury and Gabe, 2004; Pomerleau and McKee (2005). Issues which continue to reflect the cross-sectorial problems surrounding public health include homelessness and poverty (Ryan and Sarikoudis, 2003). The report does address the statistics around economic inequalities and poverty, showing that the borough has a higher proportion of people in lower-paid occupations, which significantly impacts on health. It also addresses some specific issues which emerge from the social health spectrum, including sexual health and young people (Bergmann and Scott, 2001). The report does focus on behavioural aspects of health, and illness, across specific social groups, including young people’s health. Some of the issues presented are similar to those found nationally and internationally, including teenage pregnancy and teenage social isolation (Bergmann and Scott, 2001; Goesling and Firebaugh, 2004). However, there is very little focus on, for example, homelessness as a public health issue, one which affects many of the key points which are being raised in the report. Shah and Cook (2001) for example, show that in one of the key indices of cardiovascular disease, that of hypertension, factors influencing this disease the most are not socioeconomic status but actually social isolation, and homelessness is one of the most severe forms of social isolation that exists in our society. The report cites a number of initiatives which have positively affected health and wellbeing within the borough, but it does not really present any radical or innovative initiatives to address what are ongoing, predictable and somewhat repetitive and recurrent health and lifestyle issues which impact upon morbidity and mortality. There is a great need for different approaches to public health which build upon existing knowledge and incorporate, perhaps, more concrete information. For example, including service user input in the collection, analysis and use of these kinds of data, and in the development of public health policy, should be a significant part of public health activities such as these, and should feature more strongly in these kinds of reports. Yet models of health and social care continue to exclude the patient voice, though in this circumstance it may be complicated by the ethnic and cultural diversity fo the borough (Gagliardi et al, 2008). Conclusion The report discussed identifies the specific public health concerns of this London borough, and demonstrates not only what the most challenging issues are, but how the public health data of mortality and morbidity statistics intersect with some of the socio-economic and cultural statistics of the area. It identifies key areas for health promotion, but does not go far enough in addressing individual differences and the genetic factors which can complicate sweeping statements about causal and affecting factors in health and illness. It demonstrates that public health policies must be focused on local need, and that ongoing concerns are cardiovascular disease, mental illness and cancer. All of these are related to lifestyles, and therefore public health policy also relates to social policy. However, the links between these two could be made much clearer. 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John Wiley and Sons, New York, USA 304-329. Harding, G. Taylor, K. (2002) Social Determinants of Health and Illness The Pharmaceutical Journal 269 485-487. Iphofen, R. (2003) Social and individual factors influencing public health. In: Costello, J. Haggart, M. (2003). Public Health and Society Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Orme J, Powell J, Taylor P and Grey M (2007) Public health for the 21st century (second edition) (Chapter 1.) Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Pomerleau J, Mckee M (eds) (2005) Issues in Public Health Milton Keynes: Open University Press Ryan, A. Sarikoudis, V. (2003). ‘The Social Model of Health, Bridging the Gap between the health and homelessness sectors’. Paper Presented at the Third National Homelessness Conference. Shah, S. and Cook, D.G. (2001) Inequalities in the treatment and control of hypertension: age, social isolation and lifestyle are more important than economic circumstances. Journal of Hypertension. 19 (7) 1333-1340. Spector, R.E. (2002) Cultural Diversity in Health and Illness Journal of Transcultural Nursing 13 197.

Baking Cakes in Kigali and The Adoration of Jenna Fox Essay -- Compara

Authors Gaile Parkin and Mary Pearson focus their novels, Baking Cakes in Kigali and The Adoration of Jenna Fox, on the significance of family. In both novels, love and family are key elements: in Baking Cakes in Kigali, the main character, Angel, loses both her daughter and her son, while those around Angel are stepping up and protecting their families; in The Adoration of Jenna Fox, Jenna’s family members show their love for Jenna by breaking the law to save her life. Both novels demonstrate that family is important to all people; family can support and protect a person or even give someone courage to move on after her family is gone. In Baking Cakes in Kigali, Angel loses her daughter, Vinas, and the loss of her daughter leaves an empty hole in her heart; however, it is this hole in Angel’s heart that allows Angel to make room for someone else in her life, but in order to include someone new in her life, Angel must first acknowledge the real reason behind her daughter’s death so that she may accept it and move on. Angel was lying to herself about her daughter’s death: [Her] daughter wanted to die. She took those pills to suicide herself. (Perkin 247) Although losing her only daughter is challenging for Angel, she finally feels relief when she comes to terms with reality and exposes the truth about Vinas’s death, and by finally admitting to the reality of her daughter’s death, Angel is able to have a clearer mind and progress in life and help Leocadie, who has no mother to be with her for her wedding. By embracing the truth about Vinas’s death, Angel finds the courage to say, â€Å"Leocadie, it is not true that you have no family, because I’m going to be your mother for this wedding† (148). Thinking of Vinas gives Angel enough... ...talian villa and wine† (189) to help her only daughter, Claire, and therefore, Jenna. Both Lily and Claire are admirable mothers, who would run to the ends of the earth for their daughters; these two mothers illustrate just how deeply a mother can love her daughter and how a mother does all in her power to protect her children. Gaile Perkin’s Baking Cakes in Kigali and Mary Pearson’s The Adoration of Jenna Fox demonstrate how family can protect, support, and encourage an individual. Family is a principle aspect of a person’s life, and a loving brother or mother or father can greatly impact a person’s life. A family can encourage someone to help others or even save another’s life. It is evident, therefore, that family is a crucial element for human life; the world would be miserable if there were no loving families to care for each other and support each other.

Literary Merit of John Gunthers Death be not Proud :: essays research papers

Death Be Not Proud by John Gunther is a classic work of literary merit. The genre of the memoir is one that will never die. The life of young Johnny Gunther takes place in the 1940’s, but the courage and wisdom he portrays can be understood forever. The message Johnny sends will endure the test of time. Johnny Gunther goes through countless surgeries, hospital visits, and painful illness. Yet, despite his troubles, Johnny is surprisingly upbeat and optimistic. It is not that he is naive, it is simply that he does not want to show his anguish to the people around him. His fortitude shines through him and surrounds every one he meets. Gunther uses light in various ways in his memoir. When Johnny is at home, with friends, or studying the light is always present. This symbolizes him getting to be him with out a single thought of the disease, in essence his happiness. When Johnny is getting worse, or more bad news is brought forward the room always seems dark or full of shadows. Even though it is dark there always seems to be a little light. For example a crack in the door with light beaming through, the moon hitting his face, the sun lighting up a corner of the room. This symbolizes even in the worst of times Johnny finds a shred of hope. Instead of using his energy for self-pity he uses it constructively. He is a very bright young man and when school was no longer an option he was crushed but instead of letting it get him down, he wrote all his teachers and pleaded for tutors. Despite concerns for his doctors he took test, studied, and constructed lengthy science experiments. Even though Johnny knows death is inevitable it does not stop him from learning as much as he can while he can. He even takes his college entrance exam and is accepted into Harvard University. Johnny shows bravery in the worst of circumstances. Just as Johnny’s courage shines through so does his fast maturity from child to adult. His childhood was stolen away from him by his illness but instead of sulking he pulls himself together. He takes every difficulty in stride, and gets through them. Even when he is feeling down he hides it for he does not want anyone else to feel his pain. Being a seventeen year old boy he wants to do the things all other seventeen year old boys do.

Alternative Dispute Resolution Essay -- ADR Business Management Negoti

Alternative Dispute Resolution Consider carefully the facts of the case study and advise Eagle Aviation Ltd. and Aircraft Ltd. of the alternatives to litigation in the ordinary courts and the advantages and disadvantages of each alternative form of ADR. This submission will identify and define each form of Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) including each of the forms advantages and disadvantages. It will also compare and contrast each form of ADR and consider which form or forms would be beneficial to both Eagle Aviation Ltd and Aircraft Ltd Alternative Dispute Resolution or ADR can be defined as â€Å"any method of resolving a legal problem without resorting to the legal process† (Darbyshire, 2001). ADR is now becoming more and more favorable particularly within the court system as an alternative to traditional forms of litigation (Practice Statement [1994] 1 ALL ER 34, Cresswell, J) (Practice Note [1996] 3 ALL ER 383 this is as litigation is a process that can be costly, time consuming and complicated, therefore ADR is an alternative which can be useful to all parties involved. The leading forms of ADR are; Arbitration, mediation, conciliation and negotiation. ADR is not legally binding with the exception of Arbitration, however in Mediation when a solution has been reached and agreed by each party once it has been written and signed by the parties involved it does then become a legally binding document. ADR will only be successful if both parties involved are in agreement with the outcome this of course can become increasingly difficult if the parties refuse to speak to each other, In these cases litigation may be the only viable solution, however ADR is ideal where it is important that each party maintains an unblemished relationship with the other party involved this is especially important within the business community. Arbitration is one of the oldest forms of Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) it is governed by the 1996 Arbitration Act (AA) and is part of the Advisory, Conciliation and Arbitration Service (ACAS). The Act states in Section One that the object of Arbitration is â€Å"to obtain the fair resolution of disputes by an impartial tribunal without necessary delay or expense† (Slapper and Kelly, 2003) Arbitration can only transpire if both parties involved agree to it, it is the only form of ADR t... ...ional decision without the situation getting out of hand. Each party will in turn be able to state what they feel is the nature of the dispute before negotiating a suitable outcome. Negotiation is slightly different to Conciliation and Mediation as the person negotiating acts on ‘your’ behalf and represents and looks after ‘your’ interests, a successful negotiator will be able to reach a conclusion where they are able to achieve most of their parties wishes but without causing the other party to feel they have lost and therefore detach themselves from the rest of the negotiation process and then choose to pursue a litigation option. Conciliation can be seen as a form of Mediation in fact some people say that the only difference between them is that Conciliators have more power than Mediators as they can â€Å"suggest grounds for compromise and the possible basis for a conclusive agreement† (Slapper and Kelly, 2001). Conciliation like Arbitration is part of ACAS and like Mediation tries to allow parties to decide an outcome between them that suits them both, however it does not always guarantee that a dispute will be settled and will not proceed to litigation anyway.

International Relations Glossary

A form of political organization under which a relatively homogeneous people Inhabits a sovereign state Sovereignty Denotes a single, supreme political decision-making authority. In early modern Europe the Monarch was the Sovereign. In modern states sovereignty tends to lie with the executive arm of government. A controversial term, sovereignty relies on authority, not power. That is, the sovereign claims the right or authority to decide matters of interest to the state, even if it cannot control everything that occurs within its territory. MedievalOf or relating to the period of European history from about A. D. 500 to about 1500. Feudalism Feudalism was the medieval model of government predating the birth of the modern nation-state. Feudal society is a military hierarchy in which a ruler or lord offers mounted fighters a fief (medieval beneficial), a unit of land to control in exchange for a military service. The individual who accepted this land became a vassal, and the man who gr anted the land become known as his liege or his lord. Individualism A social theory advocating the liberty, rights or Independent action of the Individual.Liberalism A political theory that prizes Individual freedom. It believes Individuals should be free to do as they please, without the interference of others. So long as they don not harm or limit the freedom of others. In IR it has tended to focus on the development of international law, the spread of democracy and the expansion of free trade, in which Emmanuel Kant is one of the leading theorists. Communitarian's A political theory that emphasizes individuals' attachments to the community in which they grew up.The communities in which we grow up are thought to be the resource of moral values. Communitarian's adopts the ethical position that a person's moral obligations are always first and foremost members of our own community and that they cannot be extended beyond that communities boundaries. Liberal Internationalism Woodrow W ilson, thus sometimes being referred to as Williamson'. Wilson suggested that the cause of instability and conflict was the â€Å"undemocratic nature of international politics†, particularly in regards to foreign policy and the balance of power.Having identified the cause of conflict, it is possible to suggest that the aims of Iberia internationalism are expanding democratic practices and free trade, defending democracy from its rivals while protecting and promoting human rights. Harmony of interests The idealist concept of the harmony of interests is based on the notion that human beings can rationally recognize that they have some interests in common, and that cooperation is therefore possible. Democratic Peace Theory The theory that democratic states do not fight war against each other.A good amount of empirical evidence has been collected indicating that war has never been fought teen two stable democracies. Closely associated with Michael Doyle. International Institution s International institutions be defined as relatively stable sets of related constitutive, regulative, and procedural norms and rules that pertain to the international system, the actors in the system (including states as well as non-state entities), and their activities. Interdependence The mutual dependence developed among states by utilizing new technologies and through the growth of international cross-border commerce. Communication and travel.A term used before globalization became popular. Anarchy The absence of rule or government. In international relations it does not mean disorder and chaos. Power Classically defined as the ability to get an actor to do what they would otherwise not do. This is power in the sense of domination or power over others. But power can also be thought of in terms of capability or power to do or act. Realist theories hold the belief that international relations are a constant struggle for power, usually defined by material terms. National Interest A notoriously plastic term that refers to the states foreign policy aims.The national interest is said to be the same regardless of the government in power, but different governments will hold different ideological agendas and priorities, meaning that national interest will change accordingly. Refers to a mechanism that operates to prevent one state from achieving such a preponderance of power that it is in a position to lay down and enforce the law over all such others. Central to realist theories, it can be viewed as the deliberate product of foreign policies, or as the unintended consequence of several states seeking to protect themselves.In any case, states align with others to counter-balance the growth in another's power, seeking to preserve international order and a degree of equilibrium. International Community vs. international system An international system exists when two or more states have sufficient contact with each other that they become conscious of existing in the same environment and conscious of the need to consider other states interests and capabilities in the pursuit of their own interests.Globalization The stretching and intensification of social and economic relations across the globe dad possible by new communication and computer technologies and advances in transport. It is thought by many to inaugurate an unprecedented degree of global interconnectedness, although some deny its novelty by pointing to similar levels of interdependence in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Still others criticism globalization for being a vehicle of inalienable theory. Non-state Actor An actor not part of the official state or governmental apparatuses.Non-governmental organizations Specializes not-for-profit non-state actors that seek to raise consciousness and hanged the activities of governments and populations on a variety of issues. Nooks have proliferated over the last century, advocating and lobbying on issues such as human rights, landmines, poverty, animal rights and the environment, among many others. Civil Society Simply refers to those who act in international politics but are not a member or representative of any particular state. Social Movements. Denotes some kind of collective action, driven by a particular set of social concerns and emerging from society at large.Modernity A modern way of thinking, working etc. The schism between domestic and international politics in international relations. The clash of civilizations The cause of conflict in the 21st century will not be political or economic, but cultural. Different cultures have different ways of organizing society and this will be the cause of conflict. He cites Western, Slavic Orthodox, Hindu, Islamic, Japanese, Latin America, African and Confucian as the main civilizations. Cosmopolitan Democracy Cosmopolitan democracy is a political theory which explores the application of norms and values of democracy at different levels, from global to local .It is about what global governance of the people, by the people, for the people can mean. Asian Century The dominant role that could be played by Asia in the 21st century, because of its growing economic clout and global demographic trends. â€Å"Asian Century† as a theme, has gained credence following the rapid economic growth of China and India since the asses, which has propelled them to the top ranks of the world's biggest economies Mercantilism The main economic system used during the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries.The main goal was to increase a nation's wealth by imposing government regulation uncovering all of the nation's commercial interests. It was believed that national strength could be maximized by limiting imports via tariffs and maximizing exports. North-south gap The North-South divide is broadly considered a socio-economic and political divide. Generally, definitions of the Global North include the United States, Canada, developed parts of Europe, and Ea st Asia. The Global South is made up of Africa, Latin America, and developing Asia including the Middle East.Unilateralism An approach to economics and social studies in which control of economic factors is hefted from the public sector to the private sector. Drawing upon principles of neoclassical economics, unilateralism suggests that governments reduce deficit spending, limit subsidies, reform tax law to broaden the tax base, remove fixed exchange rates, open up markets to trade by limiting protectionism, privative state- run businesses, allow private property and back deregulation.Focuses on the interplay between political power and economic forces from the national through to the international and global level, whilst also taking account Based on liberal theories of economics, 1944 saw the meeting of 44 states at Breton Woods, where the new economic order was constructed and the multilateral institutions of the WEB, MIFF and GAIT were established.Hegemony Domination by a great power and its allies Washington Consensus This is the set of 10 policies that the US government and the international financial institutions based in the US capital believed were necessary elements of â€Å"first stage policy reform† that all countries should adopt to increase economic growth. At its heart is an emphasis on the importance of macroeconomic stability and integration onto the international economy – in other words a neo-liberal view of globalization.Rationalization The process of dividing an area into smaller segments called regions. One of the more obvious examples of rationalization is the division of a nation into states or provinces. 1951 Refugee Convention The 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees is the key legal document in defining who is a refugee, their rights and the legal obligations of states. UN Declaration of Human Rights (1948) The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is an international document that states Asia rights and f undamental freedoms to which all human beings are entitled.Negative Rights and Positive Rights Positive Rights are rights that can only be enjoyed through positive intervention on the part of government, often linked to the idea of freedom to', whilst negative rights are rights that are enjoyed by virtue of the inactivity of others, particularly government, and are often seen as freedoms from'. Resurrections The application of values and theories drawn from European culture, to other groups or peoples, implying a biased or distorted viewpoint.